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Captain Andrew Drake (1684-1743) sandstone tombstone from the Stelton Baptist Church Cemetery in Edison, New Jersey

Jarvis Andrew Lattin (1853-1941) granite tombstone from Powell Cemetery in Farmingdale, New York

A headstone, tombstone or gravestone is a marker, normally carved from stone, placed over or next to the site of a burial in a cemetery or elsewhere.

Use

The stele, as they are called in an archaeological context, is one of the oldest forms of funerary art. Originally, a tombstone was the stone lid of a stone coffin, or the coffin itself, and a gravestone was the stone slab that was laid over a grave. Now all three terms are also used for markers placed at the head of the grave. Originally graves in the 1700s also contained footstones to demarcate the foot end of the grave. Footstones were rarely carved with more than the deceased's initials and year of death, and many cemeteries and churchyards have removed them to make cutting the grass easier. Note however that in many UK cemeteries the principal, and indeed only, marker is placed at the foot of the grave.

Graves and any related memorials are a focus for mourning and remembrance. The names of relatives are often added to a gravestone over the years, so that one marker may chronicle the passing of an entire family spread over decades. Since gravestones and a plot in a cemetery or churchyard cost money, they are also a symbol of wealth or prominence in a community. Some gravestones were even commissioned and erected to their own memory by people who were still living, as a testament to their wealth and status. In a Christian context, the very wealthy often erected elaborate memorials within churches rather than having simply external gravestones.

Crematoria frequently offer similar alternatives for families who do not have a grave to mark, but who want a focus for their mourning and for remembrance. Carved or cast commemorative plaques inside the crematorium for example may serve this purpose.

Materials

Radimlja necropolis; Tombstone from 14th century in Stolac, Bosnia and Herzegovina engraved: May this hand make you think about yours

Most types of building materials have been used at some time as markers. The more usual materials include:

• Fieldstones. The earliest markers for graves were natural fieldstone, some unmarked and others decorated or incised using a metal awl. Typical motifs for the carving included a symbol and the deceased's name and age.
• Granite. Granite is a hard stone and traditionally has required great skill to carve by hand. Modern methods of carving include using computer-controlled rotary bits and sandblasting over a rubber stencil. Leaving the letters, numbers and emblems exposed on the stone, the blaster can create virtually any kind of artwork or epitaph.
• Iron. Iron grave markers and decorations were popular during the Victorian era in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, often being produced by specialist foundries or the local blacksmith. Many cast iron headstones have lasted for generations while wrought ironwork often only survives in a rusted or eroded state.
• Marble and limestone. Both limestone and marble take carving well. Marble is a recrystallised form of limestone. Both marble and limestone slowly dissolve when exposed to the mild acid in rainwater which can make inscriptions unreadable over time. Marble replaced sandstone as a popular material from the early 1800s.
• Sandstone. Sandstone is durable yet soft enough to carve easily. Some sandstone markers are so well preserved that individual chisel marks can be discerned in the carving, while others have delaminated and crumbled into dust. Delamination occurs when moisture gets between the layers that make up the sandstone. As it freezes and expands the layers flake off. In the 1600s sandstone replaced fieldstones in Colonial America.
• Slate. Slate can have a pleasing texture but is slightly porous and prone to delamination. It takes lettering well, often highlighted with white paint or gilding.
• White Bronze. Actually sand cast zinc, but called white bronze for marketing purposes. Almost all, if not all, zinc grave markers were made by the Monumental Bronze Company of Bridgeport, CT, between 1874 and 1914. They are in cemeteries of the period all across the U. S. and Canada. They were sold as more durable than marble, about 1/3 less expensive and progressive.
• Wood. This was a popular material during the Georgian and Victorian era, and almost certainly before, in Great Britain and elsewhere. Some could be very ornate, although few survive beyond 50-100 years due to natural decomposition.
• Planting. Trees or shrubs, particularly roses, may be planted, especially to mark the location of ashes. This may be accompanied by a small inscribed metal or wooden marker.

A cemetery may follow national codes of practice or independently prescribe the size and use of certain materials, especially if in a conservation area. Some may limit the placing of a wooden memorial to 6 months after burial, after which a more permanent memorial should be placed. Others may require stones to be of a certain shape or position to facilitate grass-cutting by machines, or hand-held cutters. Cemeteries require regular inspection and maintenance, as stones may settle, topple and, on rare occasions, fall and injure people ^[1]; or graves may simply become overgrown and their markers lost or vandalised. Restoration is a specialised job for a monumental mason; even the removal of overgrowth needs care to avoid damaging the carving. For example, ivy should only be cut at the base roots and left to naturally die off, and never pulled off forcefully.

Inscriptions

Gravestone showing death date of 1639

Limestone headstone, St Giles churchyard, Wormshill

Markers usually bear inscriptions: epitaphs in praise of the deceased or quotations from religious texts. In a few instances the inscription is in the form of a plea, admonishment, testament of faith, claim to fame or even a curse — William Shakespeare's inscription famously declares;

Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,

To dig the dust enclosèd here.

Blest be the man that spares these stones,

And cursed be he that moves my bones.

Or a warning about Mortality, such as this Persian poetry carved on an ancient tombstone in the Tajiki capital of Dushanbe.^{[2] [3]}

I heard that mighty Jamshed the King

Carved on a stone near a spring of water these words:

"Many – like us – sat here by this spring

And left this life in the blink of an eye.

We captured the whole world through our courage and strength,

Yet could take nothing with us to our grave."

Or a simpler warning of inevitability of death, such as:

Reader beware as you pass by,

As you are, so once was I,

As I am now, so you will soon be,

Prepare for your fate and follow me.

The basic information on the headstone generally includes the name of the deceased and their date of birth and death. Such information can be useful to genealogists and local historians. Larger cemeteries may require a discrete reference code as well to help accurately fix the location for maintenance. The cemetery owner, church, or, as in the UK, national guidelines might encourage the use of 'tasteful' and accurate wording in inscriptions.

Headstone engravers faced their own "Year 2000 problem" when still-living people, as many as 500,000 the United States alone, pre-purchased headstones with pre-carved death dates beginning 19–.^[4]

Bas-relief carvings of a religious nature or of a profile of the deceased can be seen on headstones dating from before the 1800s. Since the invention of photography, a gravestone might include a framed photograph or cameo of the deceased; photographic images or artwork (showing the loved one, or some other image relevant to their life, interests or achievements) are sometimes now engraved onto smooth stone surfaces.

Some headstones use lettering made of white metal fixed into the stone, which is easy to read but can be damaged by ivy or frost. Deep carvings on a hard-wearing stone may weather many centuries exposed in graveyards and still remain legible. Those which are fixed on the inside of churches, on the walls or on the floor (frequently as near to the altar as possible) may last much longer: such memorials were often embellished with a monumental brass.

PETA’s Grave Marker Protest

Marker inscriptions have also been used for political purposes, such as the grave marker installed in January 2008 at Cave Hill Cemetery in Louisville, Kentucky by Mathew Prescott, an employee of PETA. The grave marker is located near the grave of KFC founder Harland Sanders and bears the acrostic message “KFC tortures birds.” ^[5] The group placed its grave marker to promote its contention that KFC is cruel to chickens.

Form and decoration

Elaborately carved grave slab at Shebbear (Devon, England) showing a skull sprouting flowering shoots, as a symbol of resurrection

Marble headstone of a couple buried together in Singapore, showing an arched emblem, signifying the reunification with one's partner in heaven. Within the arch is a statue of Jesus Christ

Unconventional Tombstone in the Cemetery Park of the "Freireligiöse Gemeinde" in Berlin, Prenzlauer Berg. Tree stump headstones in U.S. cemeteries are often associated with fraternal orginization Woodmen of the World.

Gravestones may be simple upright slabs with semi-circular, rounded, gabled, pointed-arched, pedimental, square or other shaped tops. During the 18th century, they were often decorated with memento mori (symbolic reminders of death) such as skulls or winged skulls, winged cherub heads, heavenly crowns, urns or the picks and shovels of the grave digger. Somewhat unusual were more elaborate allegorical figures, such as Old Father Time, or emblems of trade or status, or even some event from the life of the deceased (particularly how they died). Later in the same century, large tomb chests or smaller coped chests were commonly used by the gentry as a means of commemorating a number of members of the same family. In the 19th century, headstone styles became very diverse, ranging from plain to highly decorated. They might be replaced by more elaborately carved markers, such as crosses or angels. Simple curb surrounds, sometimes filled with glass chippings, were popular during the mid-20th century.

Some form of simple decoration is once more popular. Special emblems on tombstones indicate several familiar themes in many faiths. Some examples are:

• Anchor - Steadfast hope
• Arch - Rejoined with partner in Heaven
• Birds - The soul
• Book - Faith, wisdom
• Cherub - Divine wisdom or justice
• Column - Noble life
• Broken column - Early death
• Conch shell - Wisdom
• Cross, anchor and Bible - Trials, victory and reward
• Crown - Reward and glory
• Dolphin - Salvation, bearer of souls to Heaven
• Dove - Purity, love and Holy Spirit
• Evergreen - Eternal life
• Garland - Victory over death
• Gourds - Deliverance from grief
• Hands - A relation or partnership (see Reference 3)
• Heart - Devotion
• Horseshoe - Protection against evil
• Hourglass - Time and its swift flight
• Ivy - Faithfulness, memory, and undying friendship
• Lamb - Innocence
• Lamp - Immortality
• Laurel - Victory, fame
• Lily - Purity and resurrection
• Lion - Strength, resurrection
• Mermaid - Dualism of Christ - fully God, fully man
• Oak - Strength
• Olive branch - Forgiveness, and peace
• Palms - Martyrdom, or victory over death
• Peacock - Eternal life
• Pillow - a deathbed, eternal sleep
• Poppy - Eternal sleep
• Rooster - Awakening, courage and vigilance
• Shell - Birth and resurrection
• Star of David - The God
• Skeleton - Life's brevity
• Snake in a circle - Everlasting life in Heaven
• Swallow - Motherhood
• Broken sword - Life cut short
• Crossed swords - Life lost in battle
• Torch - Eternal life if upturned, death if extinguished
• Tree trunk - The beauty of life
• Triangle - Truth, equality and the trinity
• Shattered urn - Old age, mourning if draped
• Weeping willow - Mourning, grief

Greek letters might also be used:

• αω (alpha and omega) - The beginning and the end
• χρ (chi rho) - The first letters spelling the name of Christ
• IHS - Stylised version of iota-eta-sigma, a Greek abbreviation of Jesus

Image Gallery

Japanese Cemetery — Broome.JPG Headstones in the Japanese Cemetery in Broome, Western Australia	A cemetery in rural Spain	A typical late 20th century headstone in the United States	Headstone in an English cemetery
19th century marble headstone in an Iowa, USA cemetery	18th century Biedermeier-Headstone from the St. Marx cemetery, Vienna, Austria	German POW	The grave marker for Horatio Nelson Ball and his father, Joseph Ball, Jr. in the Grandville Cemetery, MI, USA.
The grave of the Bristol slave known as Scipio Africanus has both head and foot stones. It has been restored to its original painted state	Headstone for a dog at Tatton Park, Cheshire, UK.	A grave marker in Douglas County, Kansas, USA, made to resemble a millstone.	The Old Jewish Cemetery in Prague, Czech Republic.
Muslim Tatars of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast use peculiarly shaped wooden posts as grave markers	A 19th century gravestone in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, erected in memory of an Irishman born shortly before The Great Hunger	The 1777 gravestone of Col. John Hart at the North Cemetery in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, USA.

See also

• Khachkar
• Mausoleum
• Stele
• Sarcophagus
• Scottish gravestones
• Stećak

External links

• In Search Of Gravestones Old And Curious by W.T. (William Thomas) Vincent, 1896, from Project Gutenberg

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Headstone

• World Burial Index Photographs of memorial inscriptions plus free surname search
• A Very Grave Matter Old New England gravestones
• Historic Headstones Online Project to transcribe content from historic headstones
• Pennsylvania German tombstones
• Gravestone symbols from Spirited ghost hunting
• Old Headstones and Tombs displays a scattergram of the distribution of hands sculptures on headstones, and some remarkable tombstones
• The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey includes gravestone imagery in the state of New Jersey

References

Final Fantasy V Advance - Shiva

Shiva is pretty easy if you do these things :- 1) Give an ether to a tombstone enemy and let it cast Flash to learn as Blue Magic. 2) Level to Lv.11. A team with a Blue Mage and White Magic/Black Magic users help a lot. Cast Flash to render the Ice Commanders' attacks useless, then use Goblin Punch on Shiva to deal 500+ damage. Use Fire and kill.

deadman

Author: fastracerwwe
Keywords: undertaker last ride deadman tombstone smackdown chokeslam nickleback saving me savin
Added: August 28, 2008

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Author: burnsdarren
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Added: August 28, 2008

Crazy tombstone jumper in the Lakes of southern Spain

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Added: August 28, 2008

Well...heres my video for the contest :) I have no hope on winning speaking that im not a "fan favorite" but hey at least I can say I tried my best and did all I could do. HQ LINK: &fmt=18 Clips: © World Wrestling Entertainment Inc. Song Used: Shooting Star - Black Stone Cherry Rate/Comment More Tags: Male wrestlers * Flag of United States Batista (Dave Bautista) * Flag of United States The Boogeyman (Marty Wright) * Flag of Canada Chris Benoit * Flag of United States Daivari (Shawn Daivari) * Flag of United States Festus Dalton (Drew Hankinson) * Flag of United States Jesse Dalton (Ray Gordy) * Flag of United States Deuce (James Reiher, Jr.) * Flag of United States Domino (Cliff Compton) * Flag of Canada Edge (Adam Copeland) * Flag of Northern Ireland Finlay (David Finlay) * Flag of Japan Funaki (Shoichi Funaki) * Flag of United States Chavo Guerrero (Salvador Guerrero III) * Flag of United States Matt Hardy * Flag of United States Gregory Helms * Flag of United States Mark Henry * Flag of United States Kane (Glen Jacobs) * Flag of United States Brian Kendrick * Flag of United States Paul London * Flag of United States The Miz (Mike Mizanin) * Flag of United States Shannon Moore * Flag of United States Jamie Noble (James Howard) * Flag of United States Montel Vontavious Porter (Antonio Banks) * Flag of England William Regal (Darren Matthews) * Flag of United States Scotty 2 Hotty (Scott Garland) * Flag of England Dave Taylor * Flag of United States Jimmy Wang Yang (James Yun) (more) (less) (more) (less) Y2J Chris Jericho TNA Wrestling John Morrison Credited to QMANIAC (more) (less) youtube Tribute Chavo The Rock,The Undertaker,Kurt Angle,nWo (New World Order) (Kevin Nash, Scott Hall, X-Pac, Chris Benoit,Kane Hollywood Hulk Hogan,Rob Van Dam Billy & Chuck,Booker T Edge,Big Show Rikishi,Bubba Ray Dudley D-Von Dudley,Brock Lesnar Mark Henry,William Regal Maven,Lita Billy Kidman Bradshaw Tajiri Steven Richards Chris Jericho Matt Hardy Ivory Raven Albert Jeff Hardy The Hurricane Mr. Perfect Al Snow Spike Dudley Lance Storm D'Lo Brown Diamond Dallas Page Shawn Stasiak Torrie Wilson Terri Scotty 2 Hotty Jacqueline Stacy Keibler Goldust Christian Trish Stratus Test Justin Credible Faarooq Big Boss Man Tazz Tommy Dreamer Hardcore Holly Crash Holly Val Venis Mighty Molly Perry Saturn,Eddie Guerrero Rey Mysterio,Shawn Michaels John Cena,Steve Austin Batista,Shelton BenjimanChris Jericho Jeff Hardy HBK Christian Undertaker Batista John Cena Hell in a Cell ECW WWF Rey mysterio Kane MVP Triple H Ric Flair Matt Hardy Randy Orton Johny Nitro eddie guerrero frogsplash rey mysterio 619 Ric Flair figure-4 leg lock chris jericho walls of jericho CM Punk Anaconda Vice Bobby Lashley dominator shawn micheals elbow drop matt hardy twist of fate edge spear John Cena STFU Kane Chokeslam CM Punk Go To Sleep John Cena FU Batista Batista Bomb John Morrison Corkscrew Neckbreaker Shawn Micheals sweet chin music triple h pedigree randy orton RKO undertaker tombstone

Author: ENiGMaTICxEssEnTiAL
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Added: August 28, 2008